![]() ![]() The concept of malevolent magic has since been found among cultures worldwide, and it is prominent in some cultures today. kaššāptu, from kašāpu ) came to be "regarded as an anti-social and illegitimate practitioner of destructive magic whose activities were motivated by malice and evil intent and who was opposed by the ašipu, an exorcist or incantation-priest", representatives of the official state religion. In ancient Mesopotamian religion, witches (m. They generally lived in rural areas and sometimes exhibited ecstatic behavior, which was more usually associated with the ašipu (exorcist), whose main function at this stage of development was to battle non-human supernatural forces. In this early stage, witches were not necessarily considered evil, but took white and black forms and could help others using a combination of magical and medical knowledge. According to Tzvi Abusch, the early stages of the development of witchcraft ( ipšū or kišpū ) in ancient Mesopotamia were "comparable to the archaic shamanistic stage of European witchcraft". The concept of witchcraft and the belief in its existence have persisted throughout recorded history. Many of these neopagans choose to self-identify as "witches." Contemporary, neopagan witchcraft in Europe encompasses a wide range of traditions, reflecting a blend of historical influences, modern interpretations, new religious movements, and a search for spiritual authenticity in a rapidly changing world. Similarly, Stregheria in Italy reflects a desire to reconnect with the country's pre-Christian spiritual roots. Drawing inspiration from ceremonial magic, historical paganism, and the now-discredited witch-cult theory, Wicca emphasizes a connection to nature, the divine, and personal growth. Wicca, pioneered by Gerald Gardner, stands out as one of the most influential neopagan traditions. Since the 1940s, neopagan witchcraft movements have emerged in Europe, seeking to revive and reinterpret ancient pagan and mystical practices. As the 17th century progressed, the fear of witches shifted from mere superstition to a tool for political manipulation, with accusations used to target individuals who posed threats to the ruling elite. The blending of ecclesiastical and secular jurisdictions in Russia's approach to witchcraft trials highlighted the intertwined nature of religious and political power during that time. Witches were often accused of practicing sorcery and engaging in supernatural activities, leading to their excommunication and execution. ![]() The Tsardom of Russia also experienced its own iteration of witchcraft trials during the 17th century. This dark period of history reflects the confluence of superstition, fear, and authority, as well as the societal tendency to find scapegoats for complex problems. The witch-craze reached its peak between the 16th and 17th centuries, resulting in the execution of tens of thousands of people. ![]() These magical healers were sometimes denounced as harmful witches, but seem to have made up a minority of the accused. The common people believed that magical healers (called ' cunning folk' or 'wise people') could undo bewitchment. Accusations often targeted marginalized individuals, including women, the elderly, and those who did not conform to societal norms. Usually, accusations of witchcraft were made by neighbours and followed from social tensions. The burgeoning influence of the Catholic Church led to a wave of witch trials across Europe. One pivotal text that shaped the witch-hunts was the Malleus Maleficarum, a 1486 treatise that provided a framework for identifying, prosecuting, and punishing witches. A feminist interpretation of the witch trials is that misogynist views of women led to the association of women and malevolent witchcraft. Witches were often viewed as dangerous sorceresses or sorcerers in a pact with the Devil, capable of causing harm through black magic. By the early modern period, major witch hunts began to take place, partly fueled by religious tensions, societal anxieties, and economic upheaval. In the Middle Ages, accusations of heresy and devil worship grew more prevalent. Ancient Rome, then a pagan society, had laws against harmful magic. The roots of European witchcraft trace back to classical antiquity when concepts of magic and religion were closely related, and society closely integrated magic and supernatural beliefs. European witchcraft is a multifaceted historical and cultural phenomenon that unfolded over centuries, leaving a mark on the continent's social, religious, and legal landscapes. ![]()
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